Blog dedicado a compartilhar obras em PDF de livros nas Readbag users suggest that Daily%20Programming.pdf is worth reading. The file contains 180 page(s) and is free to view, download or print. Ken Ham (2006) succinctly stated the problem as follows: “Most Christians have been indoctrinated through the media and education system to think in a secular way. They tend to take secular thinking to the Bible. Brain in a vat is a thought experiment in philosophy which is premised upon the skeptical hypothesis that one could actually be a brain in a vat receiving electrical input identical to that which would be. Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015. Evaluation of the surveillance of occupational injuries using a state trauma registry from a rural state, Ousmane Diallo. Novel scale development to assess the role of sanitation. Several philosophers reacting to Kant sought to explain a priori knowledge without appealing to, as Paul Boghossian (MD) explains, 'a special faculty.Best Practice Strategies for Effective Use of Questions as a Teaching Tool. University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland. Corresponding author. Corresponding Author: Toyin Tofade, Pharm. D, MS, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, 2. North Pine Street, S7. A, Baltimore, MD 2. E- mail: ude. dnalyramu. Received 2. 01. 3 Feb 8; Accepted 2. Mar 2. 9. Copyright . Well- crafted questions lead to new insights, generate discussion, and promote the comprehensive exploration of subject matter. Poorly constructed questions can stifle learning by creating confusion, intimidating students, and limiting creative thinking. Teachers most often ask lower- order, convergent questions that rely on students’ factual recall of prior knowledge rather than asking higher- order, divergent questions that promote deep thinking, requiring students to analyze and evaluate concepts. This review summarizes the taxonomy of questions, provides strategies for formulating effective questions, and explores practical considerations to enhance student engagement and promote critical thinking. These concepts can be applied in the classroom and in experiential learning environments. Keywords: questioning, critical thinking, pedagogy, effective teaching, teaching tool. INTRODUCTIONUsing questions to teach is an age- old practice and has been a cornerstone of education for centuries. Questions are often used to stimulate the recall of prior knowledge, promote comprehension, and build critical- thinking skills. Teachers ask questions to help students uncover what has been learned, to comprehensively explore the subject matter, and to generate discussion and peer- to- peer interaction. Student- initiated questions increase higher- order learning by requiring them to analyze information, connect seemingly disparate concepts, and articulate their thoughts. Indeed, questions are ubiquitous, but are the right kinds of questions – ones that promote learning, not recall – asked at the appropriate time? Poor questions can stifle learning by creating confusion, intimidating students, and limiting creative thinking. Effective questions asked in a psychologically safe learning environment support student learning by probing for understanding, encouraging creativity, stimulating critical thinking, and enhancing confidence. The art of asking the right questions at the appropriate time is not innate. Bloom’s taxonomy of learning categorizes cognitive levels into several domains. Questions that elicit responses in the knowledge, comprehension, and application domains are frequently considered lower- order questions, while questions in the analysis, synthesis, and evaluation domains are considered higher- order questions. Higher- order questions elicit deeper and critical thinking; therefore, teachers are encouraged to ask questions in these domains (Table 1). This does not mean that lower- order questions should not be asked. It is appropriate to ask questions to address all cognitive domains as long as the desired learning outcome is kept in mind and a good mix of questions is used during each teaching session. Given that the learning objectives in most courses in graduate and professional degree programs are often intended to stimulate high order cognitive processes, one would expect that higher- order questions would prevail during encounters between students and teachers. Unfortunately, observations of classroom- based instructors have repeatedly shown that lower- order questions are far more frequently used. Perhaps teachers do not value higher- order questions and feel they are not effective, or perhaps a lack of formal training on how to formulate questions to stimulate learning is the root cause. There is a paucity of empirical data regarding how to most effectively use questions to teach. The purpose of this review is to examine the taxonomy of questions and suggest some best practice strategies for formulating questions that can help achieve desired teaching objectives and learning outcomes. To effectively illustrate these concepts, the examples provided throughout this manuscript relate to a specific content area: analgesics and pain management. TAXONOMY OF QUESTIONSQuestions have been classified into several taxonomies intended to describe their fundamental essence. For the purposes of teaching, these taxonomies can be used by educators to formulate questions intended to elicit specific cognitive processes. The basic way to characterize questions is to classify them as either convergent or divergent. A convergent question, often called a closed question, is intended to elicit a specific response or a narrow list of possible responses. Educators use convergent questions to draw a single “best” response from learners. In contrast, divergent questions, also known as open questions, elicit a wide range of responses that often require substantive elaboration. Divergent questions do not have a single “best” response. Educators use divergent questions to stimulate dialog and explore a range of issues related to the topic (Table 1). Another way to classify questions is to examine their cognitive level or complexity. A hierarchal approach to cognition was originally described by Bloom and subsequently modified by Anderson and Krathwohl (Table 2). Questions may address various levels of cognition ranging from mere recall of memorized facts to processes that require deep critical thinking. Questions can, therefore, address various cognitive domains with the intent of achieving specific learning outcomes. Each domain is further categorized as lower or higher order in terms of cognitive difficulty. Remembering, which is the act of recalling information, is considered the lowest order of cognitive processing and yet recall- type questions are the most frequently posed by educators. Questions aimed at eliciting a student’s understanding of the material are those that ask the learner to provide examples, classify items, summarize information, and/or draw inferences. Application questions require the learner to execute a procedure or process, mental or physical, to an unfamiliar situation or circumstance. Analysis requires the learner to break down the material into constituent parts and determine the inter- relationships among them. Analysis questions may ask the learner to organize elements within a structure, distinguish relevant from irrelevant information, or deconstruct underlying values and biases. Evaluation requires formulating judgments based on standards or existing criteria. Evaluating questions require the learner to critique a work or product, determine the appropriateness of a process or product for a given problem, or examine the inconsistencies in a theory. Finally, creating is considered the most difficult task in terms of cognitive processing. Questions that address this cognitive domain may require learners to generate alternative hypotheses based on observed phenomena, devise a new procedure to accomplish a task, or conceptualize a new product. Questions can also be classified into knowledge dimensions. Anderson and Krathwohl describe 4 types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. These knowledge dimensions range from the concrete to abstract (Table 3). Factual knowledge includes the technical vocabulary used in a discipline and the details extracted from reliable sources of information. While factual questions often ask students to recall specific elements from a reference source, they address higher- order thinking. Questions on the factual dimension of knowledge can be constructed to demonstrate understanding, prompt analysis, or evaluate the work of others. Conceptual knowledge includes an awareness of the inter- relationships between the elements of a larger structure. Conceptual questions might ask learners to justify an answer based on underlying principles or theories, or to classify elements into categories. Procedural knowledge is the ability to use algorithms, techniques, or criteria as well as the ability to determine when it is appropriate to use them. Procedural questions might ask the learner about well- established methods for gathering information or selecting the most appropriate equation in a particular situation. Finally, metacognitive knowledge is an awareness of one’s own cognition. Metacognition questions might ask a learner to articulate a cognitive strategy required to complete a task or examine personal motivations and values. Teachers predominantly ask lower- level cognitive questions that do not effectively stimulate critical thinking. During classroom- based instruction, researchers observed 9. The majority of the questions asked were lower- level questions (6. In a similarly designed study, Sellappah and colleagues found that during practice- based experiences, clinical instructors asked lower- level questions 9. Further, the clinical instructors’ years of experience as a practitioner or teacher were not correlated with their propensity to ask lower- or higher- order questions. A study by Phillips and Duke compared the cognitive level of questions asked by full- time clinical faculty members and volunteer preceptors in nursing programs. Both faculty members and preceptors asked lower- order questions far more frequently than higher- order ones. However, full- time faculty members asked higher- order cognitive questions more frequently than preceptors. Several nonhierarchical types of question prompts, including focal, brainstorm, shotgun, and funnel questions, are widely used in teaching (Table 1). Shotgun questions and funnel questions often elicit confusion and generally should be avoided. A study that used a variety of question prompts directed at students enrolled in an online course found that brainstorming questions elicited the highest number of responses per prompt while shotgun questions elicited the least.
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